The characteristics of the included studies [,,] , comprising the type of model, sample size, dosage, interventions, and main results, are summarized in Table 2
Hydrophilic substances are polar and can form hydrogen bonds to water
278,279 In addition, this technology is used in the clinically approved vaccines ALC-0315 (BNT162b2-Comirnaty) and SM-102 (mRNA-1273-Spikevax), where the pKa value ranges from 6.1 to 6.7
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Injection-Based Administration Subcutaneous injections: All GLP-1 RAs are administered via subcutaneous injection Prefilled pens: Most common delivery system, allows for self-administration Auto-injectors: Simplify the process for patients with dexterity issues Multi-dose pens: Require dose dialing and needle attachment Dosing frequency: Daily: Liraglutide (Saxenda, Victoza), some formulations of exenatide (Byetta) Weekly: Semaglutide (Wegovy, Ozempic), tirzepatide (Mounjaro, Zepbound), dulaglutide (Trulicity), exenatide extended-release (Bydureon) Titration schedules: Most FDA-approved GLP-1 RAs require gradual dose escalation to minimize gastrointestinal side effects
